Analysis of Charles Dickens’ †Sketches by Boz Essay

‘The Streets-Morning’ by Charles Dickens is an extract taken from ‘Sketches by Boz.’ It is a descriptive piece and follows prominent features of the literary sketch technique, as it contains no prominent plot. The speaker narrates the â€Å"appearance presented by the streets of London an hour before sunrise on a summer’s morning.† The extract is in the first person narrative. This feature adds intensity and supports the use of details. First person narrative is generally considered unreliable due to lack of witnesses and external verification; however, the detached and objective narration by the speaker prompts readers to think otherwise – â€Å"now and then a rakish looking cat runs stealthily†¦bounding first on the water-butt then on the dust hole†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The sentence structures used support the use of detail and imagery. The speaker uses complex-compound sentences that are long with two or more sub-clauses. The use of these help create the atmosphere and heavy early morning slumber – â€Å"There is an air of cold, solitary desolation about the noiseless streets which we are accustomed to see thronged at other times by a busy, eager crowd, and over the quiet, closely shut buildings†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Through this narrative, readers are made aware of the close attention to detail the speaker employs. The mood of the extract is established through the sentence structure and setting. A relaxed and comfortably detached perspective is evident. In many ways it is similar to the morning itself, gently unfolding as the darkness fades. The narrative time and context is established through the subjects described in the setting. â€Å"Coach-stands† lying deserted in the larger thoroughfares remind readers of the 19th century. This is supported by the fact that they are described as ‘coach stands’ and not bus stands. Imagery plays an essential role in a literary sketch and is seen widely in this extract. The speaker uses concrete and abstract imagery. The use of metaphors lends a sense of what the speaker is feeling or trying to describe to the reader. Such metaphors are: â€Å"The days are swarming with life and bustle† the reference to honeybees shows a restlessness which was similarly used by John Keats in ‘Ode to Autumn† – And still more, later flowers for the bees, †¨Until they think warm days will never cease.† The bee metaphor is used to show activity that contrasts with the early morning street. The second metaphor is – â€Å"stillness of death is over the streets,† perhaps the most foreboding of lines in the extract, this metaphor could serve as a possible foreshadowing for impending events. The street itself becomes an important motif. It represents a path that leads somewhere, however, readers could question whether this could be leading to activity or stagnation. This theory is supported with the images of the â€Å"drunken, the dissipated, and the wretched.† The policeman similarly, is also preoccupied with his â€Å"deserted prospect.† The description of the street is similarly presented in Tennessee Williams’ ‘A Streetcar Named Desire†Ã¢â‚¬â€œ â€Å"The houses mostly white frame, weathered grey with rickety outside stairs and galleries and quaintly ornamented gables to the entrances of both. It is the first dark of an evening in early May.† The houses become symbols of who their inhabitants are in the extract. They give readers insights to where they live, how they live and who they are. The â€Å"quiet, closely-shut buildings† are perhaps the only privacy the residents have. The speaker brings in social context through this description and the tone shifts to one of fragmentation and futility with the description of – â€Å"The last houseless vagrant whom penury and police have left in the streets, has coiled up his chilly limbs in some paved corner, to dream of food and warmth.† The social context and strata becomes ironic when the last drunken man is home before sunlight, while the â€Å"orderly† part of the population are still asleep.† The opening lines of T.S. Eliot’s ‘Preludes’ also refers to an early morning scene similar to the one in the extract, using personification – â€Å"The morning comes to consciousness Of faint stale smells of beer From the sawdust-trampled street With all its muddy feet that press To early coffee-stands.† Human qualities are given to the cat who is – â€Å"rakish looking.† The character of whose develops as the speaker gives him gender and infers that â€Å"his character depended on his gallantry.† The use of personification adds further detail to the narrative with – â€Å"A partially opened bedroom-window here and there, bespeaks the heat of the weather, and the uneasy slumbers of its occupant.† The extract uses language in distinct and deliberate ways to shape meaning. The vocabulary used helps infer that the speaker is mature; this is seen with use of words such as â€Å"penury,† â€Å"profligate† and â€Å"dissipated.† A sentence of importance in shaping such meaning is – â€Å"The drunken, the dissipated and the wretched have disappeared.† The trochaic features at the end of each word, helps to reveal the distant and condescending manner in which the speaker is viewing these people. The order in which these words are presented form a climatic effect. Also seen is the use of the adverb â€Å"then† in describing the cat’s actions, which gives dramatic effect – â€Å"Bounding first on the water-butt, then on the dust-hole, and then alighting on the flag-stones.† The use of inversion by the speaker helps readers to concentrate on certain parts of the narrative. This is done in deliberation to gain readers’ attention, particularly in – â€Å"An occasional policeman may alone be seen at the street corners,† as opposed to the conventional ‘may be seen alone.’ Such emphasis is also used in – â€Å"cold, solitary desolation.† The speaker employs onomatopoeia to describe a drunken man’s inebriation with – â€Å"roaring out the burden of the drinking song of the previous night.† The speaker has a noted tone of detached indifference. This mood could be due to the futility of the modern age and monotony of these peoples lives in the eyes of a keen observer. The historical, social context comes back to the forefront and the void between the country and the urban life is seen. This effect of the 19th century and industrial revolution is addressed in – â€Å"The few whose unfortunate pursuits of pleasure, or scarcely less unfortunate pursuits of business cause them to be less acquainted with the scene.† Grammar and punctuation support meaning. The use of dashes shows a flow of thought or in the case of describing the cat, shows action and continuity. The use of the color grey in the â€Å"somber light of daybreak† supports the mood and futile atmosphere, seen also in O’ Henry’s ‘Gift of the Magi’ – â€Å"Della finished her cry and attended to her cheeks with the powder rag. She stood by the window and looked out dully at a gray cat walking a gray fence in a gray backyard.† The extract concludes with a reference to the figures in the early morning streets as â€Å"exceptions† other than which the â€Å"streets presents no signs of life, nor the houses of habitation.†

Woodstock Music and Art Festival

Woodstock started out as just a big bash and ended as a once-in-a-life-time occurrence. The original Woodstock-goers share a bond and uniqueness that will be hard, if not impossible, for anyone to ever reproduce. Who started such a party? Why was it started? Did the promoters believe it would turn out quite like it did? What was the real Woodstock experience actually like? Four very young and very different men sponsored Woodstock: John Roberts, Joel Rosenman, Artie Kornfield, and Michael Lang. John Roberts was the oldest, at age twenty-six. Being heir to a drugstore and toothpaste manufacturing company, he supplied most of the money. In 1966 he met Joel Rosenman, who had just graduated from Yale Law School and was playing guitar for motel lounge bands in the Long Island area. By 1967 they shared an apartment and an idea for a screwball comedy show about two guys with unlimited resources who are always getting involved with crazy innovations. While looking for new ideas to help the show, they essentially became the characters of it. Artie Kornfield was the vice president of Capital Records and had written at least thirty hit singles. Michael Lang was the youngest in the group, at age twenty-three, and was the manager of a rock group called Train. In December of 1968 he met with Kornfield to discuss a record deal. They hit it off immediately and ended up sharing some similar ideas. One for a cultural exposition/rock concert/extravaganza and another for a recording studio set one hundred miles from Manhattan in a town called Woodstock. Their only problem was getting the money to finance it. Their lawyer recommended they talk to Roberts and Rosenman. In March of 1969, after a written proposal and a discussed budget of about half a million dollars, the four partners formed a corporation called Woodstock Ventures. The Woodstock Ventures team planned to create the world's largest rock n' roll show ever. They wanted it to include the back-to-the-land spirit, yet still be easily accessible. They ended up leasing an industrial park in Wallkill, New York (about twenty miles from Woodstock, NY), from a man named Howard Mills, for ten thousand dollars. They planned the music and art festival to take place on August 15, 16, and 17, 1969. Over seventeen major acts were planned including Janis Joplin, Jefferson Airplane, The Who, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Blood Sweat and Tears, and the Grateful Dead.2 The slogan, â€Å"Three Days of Peace and Music†, and the symbol, a catbird perched on a guitar, were agreed on by the four because they thought it would help break the hype about the concert creating violence. They hired Allan Markoff to be in charge of setting up the sound system, which at the amplifier's lowest setting would cause pain to anyone within ten feet of a speaker. Since they couldn 't entice a big movie studio to film the weekend, they got Michael Wadleigh, who had a strong reputation as a cameraman and director, to do the job. The planning was not easy and Woodstock Ventures ran into a lot of problems. Wallkill residents found out about the festival, which was estimating an attendance of about two hundred thousand people, and got scared. They did not want hippies and rioters disrupting town life. They held a meeting on July 15, 1969 and passed a town ordinance, which prohibited all events that would draw a crowd of more than three thousand people.4 Joseph Owen, the assistant town attorney of Wallkill, made clear the penalty to such a violation, a fifty-dollar fine and/or six months in prison for each officer of the corporation for each day.5 Since Woodstock Ventures had already collected nearly three hundred thousand dollars worth of tickets (the cost for a one day ticket was seven dollars, a weekend ticket cost eighteen dollars), they had no choice but to find an alternative location for the festival. Elliot Tiber, owner of El Monaco (a resort on White Lake), read about Woodstock getting tossed out of Wallkill and realized that he had what Woodstock Ventures needed, a permit to hold a music festival in Bethel, New York. He contacted Lang who immediately came out to El Monaco. However, the resort was only about fifteen acres and they needed a lot more land than that. Tiber then thought of his friend, Max Yasgur, who owned a massive dairy farm right outside of Bethel. On July 20, 1969, Woodstock Ventures agreed to rent six hundred acres of the farm for seventy-five thousand dollars. Bethel residents started to read about Wallkill's worries about the festival and they started to feel like the concert was pushed on them. George Cobb and other small landowners advised Bethel town attorney, Fredrick Schadt, and building inspector, Donald Clark, not to approve their permits.7 The landowners pressed charges against Woodstock Ventures to get them to increase security and sanitation levels. After several meetings and payoffs the court released a statement saying, â€Å"The differences between the parties have been resolved. The motion is withdrawn.† At last Woodstock was really going to happen. By Thursday, August 14, 1969 there were already about twenty-five thousand people at the site and more coming. The main highway, Route 17B, was backed up nearly ten miles. Hippie groups like the Pranksters, the Hog Farmers and Wavy Gravy set up side stages, kitchens and shelters to set a precedent for people who had never camped before and to help keep things in order.9 On the morning of Friday, August 15, 1969 several hundred New York police officers, hand-picked by Woodstock Ventures and promised fifty dollars a day, showed up to help keep order throughout the weekend. However, when they arrived they received a message stating that if they participated they may be subject to departmental censure. Several stayed to work under fake names and the agreement of being paid ninety dollars a day.10 Woodstock Ventures turned to the hippie groups to help with security and handed out passwords and symbols to the most fit. Around noon the ticket-ta kers showed up and wanted everyone to walk out and comeback in with their tickets ready. But security found this to be ridiculous and saw the only solution to be to take down the fence so everyone could enjoy. Drugs were as uncontrollable as the weather. The smell of burning marijuana filled the air. Acid was being passed out in Kool-Aid and other edible forms. Drugs such as heroin, opium, and mescaline were also being distributed throughout the festival. By midnight on Friday it started to rain and hardly let up the whole weekend. Nearly four hundred and fifty thousand people were packed together camping in the mud and sharing their love with each other. By Saturday morning there was already a food crisis. Local groups set up free kitchens and the National Guard had food and medical supplies flown in by helicopter. Three main medical tents were also setup to help organize the patients. There was one for people experiencing bad drug symptoms, another for people with bad cuts and abrasions (especially on the feet) and the last one was for people who burned their eyes from staring at the sun too long. A total of thirty two groups performed during the three day Woodstock event. On Friday, August 15, 1969 at 5:07pm Richie Havens entered the stage and started the music. Following his act was Country Joe McDonald, John Sebastian, Bert Sommer, Tim Hardin, Ravi Shankar, Melanie, Arlo Guthrie, and Joan Baez. On Saturday, August 16, 1969, around 12:15pm, Quill came on, followed by Keef Hartly, Santana, Mountain, Canned Heat, The Incredible String Band, Grateful Dead, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Janis Joplin, Sly and the Family Stone, The Who, and Jefferson Airplane. On Sunday, August 17, 1969, Joe Crocker took the stage around 2:00pm, due to a huge storm the music had to cease and did not continue until about 7:00pm. At that time Country Joe and the Fish came on, followed by Ten Years After, The Band, Blood Sweat and Tears, Johnny Winter, Crosby Stills Nash and Young, The Paul Butterfield Blues Band, and Sha-Na-Na. Last but not least, on Monday, August 18, 1969, around 8:30am Jimi Hendr ix walked on stage for an unforgettable ending. He played to a mere forty thousand people and officially ended the Woodstock Music and Art Fair at 10:30am. Woodstock was more than just an art and music festival; it was the capstone of an era and a cultural jungle. People of all sorts attended; Vietnam vets, black militants, anti-war protestors, rednecks, anti-gays, ban drug advocates, pro-government advocates, legalize drug advocates, gays/lesbians, and anti-government advocates. Although it might have seemed to be the start of a civilization collapse, it actually became the site of a mini-nation, in which minds were open and love was free. The people who came together on August of 1969 created an unforgettable landmark of the twentieth century, which changed the world forever. Gary Proud, an original Woodstock attendee, said, â€Å"You can shake off the mud, the music will fade, but you can never forget the emotions.†

What a first time homebuyer need to know about buying a home

One important and exciting life experience is purchasing a home. However, when it is the first time to buy a home, one is faced with a lot of decisions to be made, and at the same time has numerous questions which require to be answered. Thus, it is important that before one makes this important purchase, one should have basic knowledge regarding the processes of buying a home. This study paper provides some basic information for first time home buyers.The information provided will include prequalification and pre-approval, choosing a mortgage, mortgage tips and mortgage mistakes that a first time home buyer should avoid at all costs. The objective of this information is to create a better understanding of mortgage process for those first time home buyers. Approval: pre-qualification and pre-approval A lot of people use the phrases pre-qualification and pre-approval in an interchangeable manner. Though, both terms offer some suggestion of if or not a prospective home buyer can acquir e a mortgage for a particular amount, the two terms have a noteworthy variations between them.Consequently, it is vital that a prospective home buyer should understand them. (Sid, 2004) Mortgage pre-qualification Mortgage pre-qualification generally is a view by a lender about a borrower, which is given as a certificate or a letter, which states that the lender trusts that a prospective borrower is capable of qualifying to get a loan. The lender uses credit, income, employment, debt as well as asset which the prospective borrower provides as a basis of his view or trust.At times, the lender might through permission of the prospective borrower, obtain the credit report of the borrower. (Citydowninfor. com, 2007) Mortgage pre-approval On contra, pre-approval is a lot more thorough procedure. When using pre-approval the above information (Mortgage pre-qualification) is given, however, this information is then confirmed. Disclaimers found on a pre-approval form are usually subject to ad equate property evaluation and no substantial variations in the borrower’s monetary status.The pre-approval form may also indicate the kind of a loan and a specific rate and period a person is pre-approved to get. Whereas, a pre-approval is not an assurance for obtaining a loan, it gives the home buyer better chances of obtaining a loan than pre-qualification. (Citydowninfor. com, 2007) Choosing a Mortgage It is important that the prospective home buyer chooses the right mortgage. A mortgage is the loan a home buyer takes in order to finance his/her buying of the home. And it is repayable monthly.Mortgage rates are an important element which one has to evaluate before selecting the mortgage. When choosing a mortgage it is extremely vital that one chooses the best plan to fit well with his/her specific situation, this can be achieved through reaching. (Citydowninfor. com, 2007) The internet can offer the best source to carry out your research, which will include getting inform ation regarding mortgage process, available lenders, how much you can borrow, the price range and tax savings you can make which are connecting with owning a home.(Citydowninfor. com, 2007) Application for a mortgage In the past it took a lot of paperwork and time before one could know if he/she has been considered for a mortgage. However, currently, a lot of lenders have gone online and one can easily apply for a mortgage online. With the latest technology it is even possible to electronically sign your mortgage papers. Finding reputable mortgage banker It is important also that you chose a reputable mortgage banker when applying for your mortgage.Whether you decide to use a mortgage banker or credit unions or any other lenders, it is important that you chose a well reputed mortgage company. Given that, there are numerous mortgage firms, choosing a mortgage firm can be a tricky issue. Get recommendations from friends as well as friends. (Sid, 2004) Mortgage Tips The following mortg age tips will make you be able to control different aspects of house buying. If you put them in mind, then you will probably be capable of monitoring the home buying process. (Robert, 2003)

Software Piracy at CWU Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Software Piracy at CWU - Research Paper Example The proposal includes suggestions on how to tackle this growing problem and the possible preventive actions that the school authorities can undertake in order to discourage software piracy. The report also includes recommendations pertaining to countermeasures that can be taken without making it seem like the school officials are trying to curtail the use of computers by the students. Please feel free to contact me at (indicate phone number) if you have any questions or comments regarding the content and interpretation of this report. Thank you for taking the problem of software piracy on campus seriously. Sincerely, ______________________________ (Name) Enclosure: Student Software Piracy Problems at CWU Executive Summary This report provides an analysis and evaluation of of the current senior college point of view, sentiments, and attitude with regards to software piracy. Methods used include question and answer surveys pertaining to the current knowledge of the senior class members about software piracy. The first category of questions were answerable by true or false with the results showing that 84 % of students answered true when asked if they knew that purchased software allowed for only one back up copy for the user. 16 of the students answered false to the same question. 94 students answered true when asked if they knew that making copies of copyrighted software is a federal crime, only 6 students answered false. 82 students knew that making a copy of a software program owned by my company for use at home, unless expressly allowed, is a violation of copyright law, 18 students answered false to the same question. 92 students also answered true when asked if they knew that software piracy is punishable by fine and... The intention of this study is software piracy as a problem that has plagued software manufacturers since the first personal computer was developed. Although the problem is fast becoming a society based problem, the reality is that college students comprise the largest segment of software pirates. College students do not seemed to recognize software piracy as a breach of ethics and find the practice to be socially acceptable and legal to a certain degree. Although CWU students have never been caught for software piracy and our school administration insures that all software installed on campus computers are properly licensed, that does not mean to say that software piracy does not exist on campus. Software piracy is a real problem onour campus and the university administrators seem powerless to stop it. At CWU, our Information technology department is trying to do their very best to resolve the software piracy issue among the student body but it seems that there are still certain ins tances when the piracy falls through the cracks and goes unnoticed. In fact, there are certain times when the student even uses the campus lab computers in order to access and download pirated software. Although most students know about the legal restrictions and obey the laws, there are still those students who push the envelope and try to see just how far they can take their piracy skills without getting caught.

The Gender Roles Portrayed by Science Fiction Essay

The Gender Roles Portrayed by Science Fiction - Essay Example According to the research "The Gender Roles Portrayed by Science Fiction" findings society visualizes man as having the potential to exercise power and control more than the woman has. Darwin explained that conditions in nature compel men to develop such traits. According to Darwin, women have a relatively small brain capacity compared to men. This explains why the imagination of man can only allow him to create a being that has masculine traits and advanced intelligence. In addition, the last part of the fiction [portrays how Bowman enters into a different form of life. On entering stargate, Bowman displayed a rare sense of courage and did not let fear carry him over to the next world. Bowman plunges into the new world with expectation and excitement. He does not hesitate to gain the new form of energy to control the world. Kubrick portrays the story as Darwin elaborated. He implies that just as Darwin indicated, men have a greater potential of intelligence than women do (121). In h is fiction, he gives men all the chances of discovering the world and excludes the women. The view he projects to society is that technology and scientific advances are masculine adventures. In the first part of the film, Kubrick presents to us Moonwatcher, who is huge and gigantic compared to his tribesmen. Moonwatcher advances slowly as environmental conditions change from ape-like nature to humanity. He is the first human being to experience bravery and a sense of leadership. He discovers how man can use traditional tools to hunt animals for food. He developed emotions within him as time elapses. Kulbrick draws the picture of man having a higher social standing that a woman right from the start. This picture compares positively to Darwin’s theory. Space odyssey projects masculine superiority in science and technology. This view is evident in our society. Interestingly, Kulbrick displays that some women can work together with men in scientific ventures. He brings in women like Elena who travels to the moon with other women. This only makes one point clear that Kulbrick has realized that both men and women can work together to bring about scientific breakthroughs. In a different fiction story, Alien, then director brings out his perspective of gender roles and traits. In his story line, he reverses what society considers the norm. A crew is out to explore the space with the goal of collecting samples of an alien creature.

Human Computer Interaction Assesment 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Human Computer Interaction Assesment 2 - Essay Example There are many shortcuts that can be used to make the browsing user friendly. For example, ‘Ctrl+T’ opens a new tab for you, ‘Ctrl+1’ moves you to the first tab, ‘Ctrl+2’ moves you to the second tab etc. Firefox address bar has an auto complete option which gives possible suggestions for whatever address you are typing. This also has special character filters to show only a particular group of addresses which has the given word in it. It may happen sometimes that we may need to open the web pages that are closed. Firefox has facility to open the recently closed windows as shown below: What happens when you have a lot of tabs opened on Firefox and your system crashes? This is not a problem while using Firefox because it has ‘session restore’ capability. You also have Save & Quit option for restoring all the tabs so that the next time when you open Firefox, all tabs are ready for you to continue browsing from where you have stopped earlier. â€Å"Add-ons are small pieces of software created by people all over the world, that add new features or functionality to your installation of Firefox. Add-ons can augment Firefox with new search engines, foreign-language dictionaries, or change the visual appearance of Firefox. Through add-ons, you can customize Firefox to meet your needs and tastes.† (Customizing Firefox with add-ons, 2010). A private browsing mode in Firefox allows you to do browsing such that the history will not record your surfing. Firefox also remembers where you where before starting the private browsing mode. You can switch on or off the private browsing mode by just clicking ‘Start Private Browsing’ and ‘Stop Private Browsing’ in the Tools menu. You can customize your Firefox interface according to your wish by using Customize Option that you get when you right-click the Menu Bar. Firefox has the capacity to track the location from where you

Understanding of Strategic Planning In Effective Business Essay

Understanding of Strategic Planning In Effective Business - Essay Example For the success of any business organisation, it is vital to have a proper and complete strategic plan defining the decisions, allocation of capital, resources and manpower required for the decision making and proper functioning of all of its departmental areas. Depending on the types of business, methodologies have to be accordingly adopted which may include divisions and sub-divisions within an organisation like research and development, manufacturing, procurement, marketing etc. with organisation and support services by the management, marketing, clerical, information technology, stores and despatch, accounts, personnel and time-keeping and workshop and other required infrastructure along with their relevant staff. Background to Strategic Planning Usually based and depending upon the feasibility of each individual business set-up, strategic planning differs in their approaches. The most typical amongst these approaches is the three stages: â€Å"Situation† evaluation of current state and future state scenarios, â€Å"Target† defining of the detailed goals and objections, and lastly the â€Å"Path† indicating the route for attaining the targeted goals and objectives. Another popular approach is the â€Å"Draw† stage in which the image and targeted end goal and objective are visualised, then comes the â€Å"See† stage where comparisons are made between the likely positive and negative extreme that could be encountered in any given situations, and finally the â€Å"Plan† stage where all the required resources are considered for the activation of a business. In general, and as a standard practice being utilised by a number or newly setting up businesses, proper strategic planning for business should be consistent of the following points: A clear VISION setting the businesses mission statement Detailed ANALYSIS of the approach towards the desired end goals and objectives A FORMULA defining the line of actions to reach the desired end goals and objectives A proper and workable IMPLEMENTATION plan according to the agreed upon line of actions Proper CONTROL to ensure and monitor that the correct implementation process is working according to the laid-down plans Assertions For the success of any strategic planning in a business, input of internal and external analysis are necessary to be considered during the development of strategies to identify opportunities, threats, including the possible changing of unforeseen environmental situations which would effect trade and commerce relationships with customers and its likely impact on a business. An analytical consideration of the existing competition and the likely possible future competition has also to be taken into account to ensure that a business could continue to exist and flourish even under the most severely challenging market conditions prevailing at any given period of time. Arguments It is a universally accepted practice to have a strategic plan defining goals, objectives and targets to achieve positive end goals and objectives through a definitive roadmap. Accordingly policies, tactics based on legally correct rules and regulations and actions with clarity are implemented. The correct stepping stones towards eventual success should start with the sequencing of goals from short term to medium term to long term, thus creating a climbable stairway to the future. A mission statement therefore, is necessary as a vital tool in the strategic plan because without a time-frame it visualises the identity of a business, what it represents and where its stands in the future. Counter Argument Realistically the main reasons for the failure of strategic plans can be based on its being incorrect or inappropriate and/or its poor implementation. The reasoning behind incorrect or inappropriate strategy planning can be one or in combination with each

The mans effect on environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The mans effect on environment - Essay Example The man’s effect on environment This would restore the natural habitat of salmon, estuary and beaches because the nutrient rich sediments will flow downstream. It will prevent erosion and also would enhance the natural eco – system. In the case of water flow in Florida and the people can be affected by such projects. However, people need to take precedence for environment restoration because a responsible and intelligent we have the obligation to protect and preserve nature. If at all any destruction is caused to nature despite of the agent causing it we have the responsibility to take action to protect nature. My estimated greenhouse gas emissions are 15Â  tons of carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalents per year, which is below the U.S. national average. In order to limit our impact on environment we should use energy only for need basis. The lighting in the house needs to be efficient. The diet should contain less of meat products. It is essential to use less of vehicles for movement and the recycle products as much as possible. I need to use more organic food and should resort to vegetables and fruits. I need to switch to solar panels for fuel needs. One of the invasive species which is threatening is zebra mussels. It is a problem both in Unites States and Europe. Zebra mussel is a small fresh water mussel and was native to Southern. Russia. This species was introduced to many regions in West in unknown incidents. They are small in size and as they disrupt the ecosystem they are tagged as an Invasive species.

General Principles of Criminal Liability Assignment

General Principles of Criminal Liability - Assignment Example And, anything that does not match with such goodness is evil or crime deserving punishment. Such a belief is followed by the society as a whole and such moral thoughts consider crime as evil, reflecting a direct association of the criminal law and morality (Gilly, Gilinskiy and Sergevnin 2009). Jurisprudential positivists have tried to focus on the fact that law and morality are separated. The connection between law and morality was mainly supported by the classical natural law thinkers. However positivism reflects a theory that criminal law is not associated with moral. The positivists tried their best to distinguish between law and morality but it could be obtained that if the two were separated then all intersections of criminal law and morality would be rejected. Thus the concept of positivism in relation to cause a separation between law and morality was found to be confusing and hence eventually unacceptable (Legal Positivism of Law 2012). The inherent relation between law and morality has become more prominent. This is reflected in issues of homosexual marriage or rights of abortion where the criminal law based on English law can be seen to be supporting issues based on the moral principles carried by the society since the early times. One of the most common cases in the English law that reflects on the relation between the criminal law and mortality is the Regina v. Dudley & Stephens Case. The case reflects upon two men and a boy who became stranded at a sea, and when they were almost dying, the two men decided to kill the boy and eat him up, considering the fact that the boy did not have a family like they did, and also was starving. However, post their rescue, the two men were charged by the court as guilty of the murder and the law does not have support for the excuse they presented (Regina v. Dudley & Stephens: Morality, Murder and the Criminal Law 2009). In the above mentioned cases, the decisions of the legal system have significantly been based o n the moral beliefs of the society. Thus it can be said that although the positivists tried to distinguish the two considering the fact that the nature of the law needs to be different and irrespective of the moral beliefs of the society; however, it could not be achieved and hence the inherent relation of law and morality is prevalent and can be significantly seen in several criminal cases in the present times. Solution 2: As far as legal certainty with regard to English law is concerned, there are laws that determine the laws in the system. There are particular discipline and approaches of all lawyers that they use for resolution of legal issues. One of the main aims of the system of precedent is to establish legal certainty. Considering the law of precedent, the legal system should stand by what it has decided on any particular issue. This is also known as the doctrine of stare decisis, where for example, the decision taken by a High Court is imposed upon the lower courts. Howeve r, such a legal system would only mean that in certain cases, the treatment for same crimes or acts might become different thereby raising the question of injustice, if the precedent cases are not highlighted or overviewed while considering a current case (Perell 1987). As could be observed in the case of Bell v Lever Brothers Ltd, the judgment was based

Plato Short Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Plato Short Paper - Essay Example ‘The Republic’ which is an influential philosophical book was written by Plato in which he spoke many of his ideas on the nature of knowledge and reality. The theory of forms unravels the fact on how do we evolve the knowledge. According to Plato, our knowledge is mere recollection of the forms that we have seen prior to our birth and the knowledge on the immaterial realities cannot be obtained through our bodily experiences. The pertinent aspects of theory of forms are briefed in the ensuing part of this paper. Forms are the ideas which are not the material world of change and the things that we experience through our senses are particular things not abstract things. For instance, we see a flower and we understand that it is beautiful. This beauty is referred to a particular flower but we do not see ‘beauty’. We understand that there are many beautiful flowers. In the view of Plato, if there are many beautiful flowers there will be a common factor that is shared by all the beautiful flowers. Therefore, there must be a thing known as ‘beauty’ which is not visible and experiential to our senses. So, there is a universal idea of beauty that is shared by all the beautiful things and this is the core idea of the form. Plato postulates the theory of metaphysics of forms describing that form has existence independently on the particular things. For example, beauty exists independently on the beautiful things but beautiful things share the beauty in common. There are some essential properties for the forms in the view of Plato. They are self predication, independence from particulars, perfection, permanence and simplicity. Self-predication means that form is simply beautiful independent of particular things, but particular things are beautiful since they share the universal beauty. Independence from particulars means that the form has its own essence, and therefore, the form does not need time and space for its

Environmental economic--sustainable development Essay

Environmental economic--sustainable development - Essay Example It is in this context that this research is aimed at critically examining ANS within the empirical context of human survival that is anchored only on genuine sustainable development. Experts of development worldwide made a framework that seriously consider environment, as source of needed resources. WB focused on the relation of environment and sustainability as amongst the indicators of macro-economy (WB, 1997). Authorities perceived that ANS is a ‘green national account’ founded on the precept that generations of people are reliant on countrys asset base. This indicator covers natural resources, its utilization and the human resources. All these factors relate to a nation’s capacity to sustain growth over time (WB, 1997). Economist viewed ANS as a percentage of Gross National Income (GNI) (WB, 1997). The standard ANS is derivative of the standard national accounting measure of gross saving using four factors as adjustments (WB, 1997 & Bartelmus and Seifert, 2003). These are (a) consumption of fixed capital deducted to obtain net national saving; (b) current public expenditure on education as investment for human capital; (c) an accounting of the depleted natural resources deducted to reflect the utilization and maximization of asset in value due to extraction and depletion; (d) deductions due to pollutions and damages caused by carbon dioxide and emissions. This formula is showed, thus (WB, 1997 & Bartelmus and Seifert, 2003), Education cost means operating expenses in education, which include wages of teachers, expenses for enhancement of capacity but this does not include expenditures for infrastructures, facilities and materials necessary to education (WB, 1997& 2011). GS refer to are the differentiation between gross national income and public and private consumption with added net current transfers. Consumption of fixed capital symbolizes the alternate value of capital used up in the progression of production. Net savings means gross

Wine project Essay Example for Free

Wine project Essay Valais is known for its exceptional climate, whereby the mountains stop most of the rainfall, but create ‘foehn’ winds which assists in the late autumn months with the essential ripening process of late varieties of grapes. Almost continuous sunshine for most of the year attributes to hot and dry summers, while winters can be cold and snowy, even on the lower levels of the valley, yet the frost, which is usually the worst enemy of winegrowers, is rare, as the seasons change gradually, not abruptly. Soil Composition Light, well-aerated soil, poor in clay. This warms up rapidly in sunshine but does not retain water very well. The soil composition varies from plot to plot, diversity due to the geological upheavals, which occurred in this region. Type of wine Rose wine Character of the wine Dry, full bodied, typical flinty taste Food harmony (2 dishes) Seared cod with red wine sauce, Sauteed chicken with wild mushroom. Commercial argumentation This beautiful Pinot Noir opens up with very aromatic flavors. It is essential summer wines, easy to drink fresh and fruity. It has a lovely red fruit aromas with the smooth end. Cost sale price. 2009 Dole Blanche, Charrat, Verteys Price: 14 Chf. References: Swiss Wine Growers Association. (1994). All About Swiss Wine. Geneva: OFD Communications. artisan-vigneron. ch. (n. d. ) Retrieved February 26, 2013, from http://www. artisan-vigneron. ch/vins. html Chateau Brane-Cantenac Appellation Chateau Brane-Cantenac Country France Region Bordeaux Sub Region Margaux Village Margaux Estate Vineyard/ Grand cru Brane Cantenac Grape(s) Variety(ies) Cabernet Sauvignon 65%, Merlot 30%, Cabernet Franc 5% Climate conditions Bordeaux has a warm summer and long mile autumns, but suffers plenty of rainfall. In vineyard terms, it is a marginal climate, where grapes need a good site and a good year to ripen fully. Soil Composition Deep gravel from the quaternary era, with white gravel, sand and less clay. Type of wine Bordeaux-style red blend Character of the wine The wine has leafy, blackcurrant aromas a flavorsome but light wine for the vintage. Food harmony (2 dishes) Ratatouille, Roast duck with fig and orange sauce. Commercial argumentation A gorgeous deepest violet color by far that is made from world- quality grapes; Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Cabernet Franc. It will deliver wines of charm and fine texture rather than brute power. It is blend in Bordeaux style, but don’t lack of attentiveness and structure. The wine is aged for eighteen months with the love and care from the wine maker. This wine could be considered as the most sophisticated as the wine is built in a long hue, and still very much on the way to go further. Cost sale price 1988 Chateau Brane-Cantenac, Margaux, France Price Range of 750ml bottle, ex-tax in CHF Average: 85CHF From: 55CHF To 120CHF References: Crook, S. (2009). The complete Bordeaux. Great Britain, Octopus publishing group. Wine-searcher. com. (n. d. ) Retrived February 26, 2013, from http://www. wine-%09searcher. com/wine-8-1988-chateau-brane-cantenac-margaux-france Chambertin Appellation Chambertin Country France Region Burgundy Sub Region Cote de Nuit Village Gevery-Chambertin Estate Vineyard/ Grand cru Gevery-Chambertin Grand Cru Grape(s) Variety(ies) Pinot Noir Climate conditions Relatively hot, dry summers and cool, crisp winters. Particularly in summer, this climate type brings high diurnal temperature variation, which helps to maintain a balance between natural sugars and acidity in the wines. Soil Composition The soil varies depending on how high up the hillside the vineyard is located. The primary component is limestone, mixed with some clay and flint. The amount of clay decreases in site higher up the hill Type of wine Red wine Character of the wine Chambertin is full, firm and austere at the outset and structured and fleshy, with initial flavor of black fruits, liquorice and coffee beans, mellowing into something rich, concentrated, generous and warm-hearted when they mature. Food harmony (2 dishes) Beef wellington, Cheese souffle Commercial argumentation. The most prestigious and luxury wine produced from Burgundy, France with the deep colored, full body, smooth and very complex red wine from the world famous Pinot Noir. The wine is made at the northern end of the Cote d’Or, with the rich of soil and perfect amount of sun, these factors render Chambertin to be named as â€Å"King of Wines†. It offers a strong and rigid structure with the hints of black berries fruits, and coffee beans, blended together until reached the top of quality. Chambertin is full of flavor and powerful in aromas that will definitely deliver the pleasure to anyone who taste it. Cost sale price 1988 Domaine Armand Rousseau Pere et Fils Chambertin Grand Cru, Cote de Nuits, France: Price Range of 750ml bottle, ex-tax in CHF Average: 1,083CHF From: 885CHF To 1,362CHF References: Anderson, P. J. , (2012). About wine. USA, Curio Press. Coates, C. , (2008). The wine of Burgundy. University of California Press Wine-search. com. (n. d. ) Retrieved February 26, 2013, from http://www. wine-searcher. com/wine-37013-1988-domaine-armand-rousseau-pere-et-fils-chambertin-grand-cru-cote-de-nuits-france Laurent Perrier â€Å"Alaxandra rose† Appellation Laurent Perrier â€Å"Alaxandra rose†/ Champagne. Country France Region Champagne Sub Region NA Village NA Estate Vineyard/ Grand cru Laurent Perrier Grape(s) Variety(ies) Pinot Noir 80%, Chardonnay 20% Climate conditions Champagne is a cold place, at the northern climatic limit of grape growing, a factor that leaves the grapes with low tannins but a particularly fine varietal aroma. Sometimes July and August will be hot, and occasionally September and October will be warm. Soil Composition The prominent soil type is chalk, though this is not always visible in the surface Type of wine Champagne, rose Character of the wine. A pale salmon pink with an orange tinge. Complex and powerful, the first aromas are reminiscent of strawberry jam. These are followed by floral notes such as rose petal. Lively and crisp, with dominant flavors of red berry fruit such as wild strawberries. Full-bodied, with a velvety texture and a finale showing hints of dried apricots and orange peel. Food harmony (2 dishes) Duck in bilberry sauce, Green salad with Caviar and smoked salad Commercial argumentation A lively rose champagne from the world famous Pinot Noir blended with another well-known Chadonnay in a perfect combination. Laurent Perrier â€Å"Alaxandra rose† reached the top quality to be one of the best rose champagnes in the world. The wine offers the flavor of red berries and wild strawberry with the hints of dried apricots and orange zest. It has kept its freshness while building the element of toasty and maturity which renders the taste to be crips, and powerful in aromas. The full-bodied, elegant champagne with a smooth texture and a complex finish will never disappoint anyone. Cost sale price 2004 Laurent-Perrier Grand Siecle Alexandra Rose Millesime, Prestige Cuvee Champagne, France: Price Range of 750ml bottle, ex-tax in CHF? Average: 275CHF From: 275CHF To 276CHF References: Kolpan, S. , Smith B. H. , Weiss M. A. , (2010). Exploring wine. USA. Willey Press. Wine-searcher. com. (n. d. ) Retrieved February 26, 2013, from http://www. wine-searcher. com/wine-16145-2004-laurent-perrier-grand-siecle-alexandra-rose-millesime-prestige-cuvee-champagne-france Lauren-perrier. com. (n. d. ). Retrieved February 26, 2013, from http://www. laurent-perrier. com Mondavi private selection Meritage Appellation Monterey County Country USA Region California Sub Region Central coast Village NA Estate Vineyard/ Grand cru NA Grape(s) Variety(ies) 72% Cabernet Sauvignon, 11% Petit Verdot, 8% Malbec, 7% Cabernet Franc, 2% Merlot Climate conditions The 2008 growing season on California’s Central Coast was one of great variety. Flowering was on the late side due to winter drought and a strong frost in late March. Summer temperatures were inconsistent, alternating between cool and excessively hot. Soil Composition Sandy, well-drained soil Type of wine Red wine Character of the wine The wine offers lavish dark plum, black cherry, and blackberry aromas along with a velvety texture and succulent mid-palate flavors. Its finish is impressively long and enhanced by well- integrated tannins. Food harmony (2 dishes) Grilled rib eye with garlic butter, Osso Bucco Commercial argumentation With the brilliant invention of Robert Mondavi, he created the wine with Bordeux style and presented it into a very nice wine. The wine is an amazingly rich with the dark plum color, yet tasteful and easy to drink. It consists of five different Bordeaux red varieties; Cabernet Sauvignon, Petit Verdot, Malbec, Cabernet Franc, and Merlot that were blended in the perfect combination until reaching the same quality as Bordeaux wines. Cost sale price 2008 Robert Mondavi Winery Private Selection Meritage, California, USA Price Range of 750ml bottle, ex-tax in CHF? Average: 10CHF From: 7CHF To 13CHF References: Kolpan, S. , Smith B. H. , Weiss M. A. , (2010). Exploring wine. USA. Willey Press. Robertmodavi. com. (n. d. ) Retrieved February 26, 2013 from http://www. robertmondavi. com/rmps/wines/our_wines/meritage/ Wine-searcher. com. (r. d. ) Retrieved February 26, 2013 from http://www. wine-searcher. com/wine-77785-2008-robert-mondavi-winery-private-selection-meritage-california-usa.

Factors Affecting Purchase Of A Smart Phone

Factors Affecting Purchase Of A Smart Phone In this chapter, there are 4 independent variable and dependent variable. These variables are important to examine this research. These variables include brand name, features, price and quality. Besides, this chapter will be including the reading materials which are based on the topic of this research. The materials that included will be extracting from online journals, articles and magazines. The researcher gets the genuine journals from online databases, such as Emerald Intelligent, ScienceDirect , ProQuest Digital Dissertation Abstract and Google Scholar. The purpose of doing this research is to study the factors that affecting consumers to purchase Smartphone in Malaysia. Smartphone is getting attention from all segments of consumer today, but there must be some factor that will affect their behaviour before buying it rather than purchasing the normal basic cell-phone. According to Khasawneh and Hasouneh (2010), the products brand name will influence consumers evaluation and then perceive different products offering which as a result will affect on consumers behaviour when purchasing products and understanding consumers behaviour is a decisive factor in the companies success around the world. Therefore, this research is to determine whether or not brand name will affect the Malaysian consumers when they are making their purchasing on a Smartphone. Feature has the strong ability to induce consumers purchasing decision. This explains that when consumers are purchasing any products, consumers will tend to make us of the products feature as a basis for evaluating a product (Puth, Mostert and Ewing, 1999). Features for Smartphone is not only one two three, it will depends on the users preference on what are their needs. Build-in camera is getting more focus from the consumer nowadays, mobile phone manufacturer tend to improve the camera and speaker in order to fulfil customers needs. Therefore, this research will have the intentions to find out if feature is the major persuasive factor that affecting consumer behaviour towards purchasing a Smartphone. Almost every advertisement accentuates on price, 90 percent of retailers in this market screen the prices of their competitors on a regular basis (Kenning, Evanschitzky, Voegl and Ahlert (2007). Kunal and Yoo (2010) shows that price has a positive impact on behavioral intentions. In other words, consumer will tend to have more purchasing intentions if the price is consumers perception and vice-versa. For that reason, this research will find out whether or not price will influence consumer heavily when they come to buying a Smartphone. According to Khanna, Vat, Shankar, Sahay and Gautam (2003), stated that none of the writers disagree that quality is one of the most crucial critical success factors in order for organizations to achieve competitiveness among competitors. They further interpret that quality had make the Japaneses automobile industry overtook the USAs during 1980s and become the biggest in the world though Japans automobile industry started several decades behind the USAs. In other words, quality is an important factor that consumer will put into consideration before making any purchasing decision, therefore, this independent variables is to find out whether or not it will have the same effect towards consumers in Malaysia when purchasing a Smartphone. All these variables are important because they are main factors that have positive related to the dependent variable. In this research, independent variables that would be focused on are brand name, features, price and quality. In excess of 1.3 billion people are using cell phone worldwide today while the year of 2003, an estimated number of 1,340,667 cell phone subscribers were being perceive worldwide, an increment from approximately 91million in the year of 1995 and 1.158 billion in the year 2002 of 53.49% of total telephone subscribers (Goggin, 2005). Besides, it was also supported by Gart-ner and Ahonen (2010), stating that more than 1.3 billion mobile phone handsets are being sold each year, and in the year of 2010, Smartphones made up almost 20% of that total (Gart-ner and Ahonen, 2010). Sales of Smartphones are escalating almost 100% per year, and is expected in the year of 2012 the total global sales volume is expected to surpass the sales of PCs (Gartner, 2010). C:UsersUserDesktop01.jpg Figure 2.1: Worldwide Smartphone Sales for the year of 2008. Source: Andreas Jakl, 2009. In the year of 2008, the highest worldwide Smartphone sales belongs to Nokia, 43.7% from the worldwide Smartphone sales in 2008 belongs to Nokia. In order for Nokia to be the leader of the market, there must be some reason behind. Regardless what the brand is, consumer will look at various points before making any decision. ). According to Kupiec and Revell (2001) the intention to purchase a product will be more depending on the scale to which consumers expect the product to reach their satisfaction level when they consume it. According to Yu and Tan (2005), in July 2001, the Ministry of Information Industry (MII) of the Peoples Republic of China publicize d that the figure of its mobile phone users has achieved 120.6 million, which makes China the major mobile communication market in the world. This was supported by Bell (2006), the worlds current largest cell phone market belongs to the Peoples Republic of China. In Asia, the usage ratio of mobile phones in Hong Kong is slightly higher as contrasted with other Asian countries (Chan, and Chan 2008). Mobile phone penetration rate is ranked as the second highest in Asia Pacific (International Telecommunication Union, 2004). The consumer desirous for Smartphone is increasing dramatically and will move forwards annual sales wide-reaching from 131 million units in 2008 to over 300 million by 2013, according to market research company Parks Associates (Cellular-News, 2009). http://img.cellular-news.com/story/38286/Global_sales_of_smartphones_to_reach_310_million_units_in_2013_1.png Figure 2.2: The global Smartphone sales units (2008 2009) and predicted sales units (2010 -2013) The occurrence of economic recession in recent years does not seriously infected the industry, a report by Berridge (2010) stated that the industry was not really suffered that critically during the recession seeing that the sales for 2009 were down a bit at 1.15 billion units but that was not that far down from the 1.2 billion handsets whipped in year 2008. The constructive impact of communication is experience by more Nigerians in the past four years than they what they came across in the first three decades of self-government (Adomi, 2005). According to Myers and Shocker (1981), factors can be pigeonholed in many ways which comprises extrinsic and intrinsic. The extrinsic aspects that include physical prompt such as features and brand name (Olson and Jacob, 1972). On the other hand the aspect that did not consider as part of the physical of product includes price and quality (Olson, 1977). The mobile phone has become an indispensable tool that is found in all doctors pockets with the advancement of technologies, the phones have become more stylish over time, especially with the introduction of third generation technology in 2001(Dala-Ali, Lloyd and Al-Abed, 2011). This has immensely increased both the storage and also the speed of mobile phones. There are many third generation phones obtainable from the market; among the most well accepted are the Blackberry and the iPhone, given that the iPhone is a smartphone produced by Apple Inc. and was launched in the USA in June 2007 and since then over 33 million phones have been sold worldwide and the number of European iPhone users rose by 161% in the year running up to April 2010 (Dala-Ali, Lloyd and Al-Abed, 2011). 2.1 History of telecommunication If histories of media have their difficulties, there are uncharacteristic trials and description in seeking to devise histories of the newer media (Flichy, 2002). Mobile telecommunication technologies have matured in consecutive generations (Dunnewijk and Hulten, 2007). According to Goggin (2005) the mobile phone has been in development for at least fifty years regardless of the mobile phone relatively recent commercial availability and consumer adoption from the early 1980s onwards. It also recursively adopts and reconstructs lifestyle, anticipations, and cultural forms from two other technologies central to modernity, to be exact the telegraph and telephone (Goggin, 2005). The history of mobile telephone goes back to experiments in the US in the 1920s with radio telephony (Kargman, 1978 and Agar, 2003). The first mobile phones were usually car-bound and ATT launched in 1947 a highway service between Boston and New York after the success of first mobile telephone network in St. Louis (Agar, 2003). Eventually radiotelephony became so crammed full, in New York particularly, that the network operators used waiting lists while candidate customers waited hoping to be so lucky to get a mobile phone connection (Agar, 2003). By the year of 1950 there were still only fifty million telephones in use in the world (Goodman, 2003). Goodman (2003) also further stated that Japan was the first to adopt fixed line phone which is in the 1970s, the number was go beyond by mobile phone somewhere in year 2002, International Telecommunications Union (ITU) predicts that the figure will almost one in three in the year of 2005. In the year of 1996, Nokia introduced the Communicator, a GSM mobile phone and handheld computer which had a QWERTY keyboard and built in word processing and calendar programs that allows besides sending and receiving faxes, the 9000 could check e-mail and access the internet in a limited way (Farley, 2005). Whereas the first generation (1G) appeared in the 1950s, while the second generation (2G) or GSM technology is used extremely wide, but challenged globally by the subsequently (third) generation (3G) technologies. This sequence of generations is characterised by increasing capacity (higher transmission speeds) and richer content of the message. Further penetration of 3G depends critically on the integration of telecommunication services and multimedia services, which turned out to be more complicated than most experts predicted (Dunnewijk and Hulten, 2007). The fruition of Chinas mobile telecom industry since its inauguration in the year of 1987 and appears to be a multistage industrial development process with policy intrusion and market competition. (Siau and Shen, 2003, Maitland, Bauer and Westerveld, 2002, Barnes and Corbitt, 2003). The number of mobile subscribers in China had twofold each year from year 1994 to 2001, by the Q4 of 2002; China had 206.3 million mobile telecommunications subscribers and had become one of the most attractive spots for the international and domestic telecom operators, equipment and phone manufacturers (Yu and Tan, 2005). In addition, Bell (2006), stated that the worlds current largest cell phone market belongs to the Peoples Republic of China. In the mobile telecommunications circles, systemic improvement examples are the successive generations of first generation (1G), second generation (2G) and third generation (3G) systems and this revolution will affect not only our daily lives and the way business is accomplished (Siau and Shen, 2003, Maitland, Bauer and Westerveld, 2002, Barnes and Corbitt, 2003). Table 1: List of best selling brand, year of founded and homepage. Brand of Phone Year of Founded Homepage Nokia 1865 http://www.nokia.com/ Motorola 1928 http://www.motorola.com/Consumers/XP-EN/Consumer-Products-and-Services/Mobile-Phones/ Samsung Mobile 1938 http://my.samsungmobile.com/index.jsp LG mobile 1958 http://www.lg.com/my/mobile-phones/index.jsp Palm 1996 http://www.palm.com/us/ HTC 1997 http://www.htc.com/sea/ Blackberry 1999 http://worldwide.blackberry.com/landing.jsp?regionId=22 Sony Ericsson 2001 (Joint Venture of Sony Corporation and Ericsson) http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/cws/home?cc=mylc=en Apple iPhone 2007 http://www.apple.com/iphone/ 2.2 Variables 2.2.1 Consumer Behavior Consumer behaviour can be defined as the acquisition, consumption and disposition of products, services, time and ideas by decision making units. While consumer decision making can be defined as a mental orientation characterizing a consumers approach to making choices (Lysonski, Durvasula and Zotos 1996). Value is created when a consumer is offered useful information and gains understanding, reassurance and/or hedonic fulfilment in the process (Grant, Clarke and Kyriazis, 2007). The value creation relies on an analysis of online consumer behaviour to determine which information sources and formats are most likely to meet their needs at a given point in time (Grant, Clarke and Kyriazis, 2010). #To make the decision of purchasing, consumers take into account criteria such as reliability, quality, price and convenience of the product (Sanlier and Karakus, 2010). In contrast to simple or routine purchases, complex consumer behaviour may involve an extended process with a range of activities, each of which presents different challenges for a consumer (Assael, Pope, Brennan and Voges, 2007).Analysis of consumer purchasing decisions is not uncommon and a body of knowledge has developed (Watson, Howard and Patrick, 2002).There are several models and theories which describe consumer behaviour from a specific perspective (Estri, Hassangholipour, Yazdani, Nejad and Rayej 2010). Among all these models, the purchase decision model helps to understand the relation between consumer behaviour variables better than the other models. According to Kim, Forsythe, Gu and Moon (2002), is been an ongoing marketing challenges for retailing in competitive global markets towards marketers to meet the changes of customer needs by providing the right products and services. A consumers decision-making style has been defined as a patterned, mental, cognitive orientation towards shopping and purchasing, which constantly dominates the consumers choices (Safirk Mokhlis and Hayatul Safrah Salleh, 2009). It is common knowledge that price influences a customers buying decision (Monroe, 1973). Intention to purchase depends on the degree to which consumers expect the product to satisfy them when they consume it (Kupiec and Revell ,2001). When a consumer wanted to make the purchase decision, they will pass through the process through recognition, search information, evaluation, purchase, feedback (Blackwell, Miniard, and Engel, 1995). Therefore, the consumer will choose a product or brand to consume from various choice can get in the market. According to Bettman, Johnson and Payne (2000), different situation will be affect by different factors. Information overload also increase the complexity of the consumer behaviour towards purchasing a product (Bettman, Johnson and Payne, 2000). The information can be obtained by advertisement, display, brochures and etc. A study by Lynch and Srull (1982) suggested that decision-making can be categorized in 3 categories which are stimulus-based, memory-based and mixed. When consumer affect by the external information or factor can be category in stimulus-based. When consumer makes decision based on their memory or internal perception can be category in memory-based. The combination of this two is mixed. Consumer has different tastes, needs, motivation and lifestyle when they want to purchase a product (Chisnall, 1985). Some of them preferred high quality and willing to pay high price, some of them are not (Monroe, 2003). Furthermore, the consumer behaviour towards purchasing a product can be investigating through the consumer characteristics. It include Brand conscious, price conscious, quality conscious, recreation conscious, innovation conscious, confused by over choice, impulsive and brand (Leo, Bennett, and Hartel, 2005). Therefore, it is important to find out the relationship between those characteristics and the consumer purxhasing behaviour. 2.2.2 Brand Name In todays changing global environment, many businesses are facing increasing competition that forces them to seek for competitive advantage, efficiency and profitable ways to differentiate among them (Mei, Dean and White, 1999). Brand names are valuable assets that help correspond quality and suggest precise knowledge structures which related to the brand (Srinivasan and Till, 2002). Researchers have distinguished that brand name as an important tool in improving a products value (Dodds, Monroe and Grewal, 1991). According to Rotfled (2009), brand name is an exclusive and is to indicate product itself to the market. Besides according to the American Marketing Association, defined the brand as name, term, symbol, or design, or a combination of them intended to identify the goods and services of one seller or group of sellers and to differentiate them from those of competition (Khasawneh and Hasouneh, 2010). Haigh (2007) has proposed three definitions: trademark is a logo with associat ed visual elements, brand is a trademark with associated intellectual property rights, and branded business covers the whole organization. According to Rao and Ruekert (1994), stated that one of the major objectives of a brand name is to provide information on the quality of a product. The value of a brand name adds to the product is named as brand equity (Farquhar, 1989). Developing brand equity is thought to be an important component of brand building (Keller, 1998). Brand equity is assumed to convey several benefits to a firm (Pappu, Quester and Cooksey, 2005). Brands might develop sustainable competitive advantage for firms (Aaker, 1989). As a result, if consumers perceive a particular brand favourably, then the firm may have a competitive advantage (Pappu, et. al, 2005). Brand name is lack of possibilities to establish in short term, in other words, is needed to develop in long term. More and more companies realized that one of their most priceless assets is the brand names that related with their products or services (Cornelis, 2010). In recent aggressive competitive market place, the most critical success element for companies is the brand name that were being used by a product, and further stated that the brand names are consider as the last source of differentiation for the companies products and services (Lim and OCass, 2001). According to Khasawneh and Hasouneh (2010), the products brand name will influence consumers evaluation and then perceive different products offering which as a result will affect on consumers behaviour when purchasing products and understanding consumers behaviour is a decisive factor in the companies success around the world. Brand managers face a complex and multifaceted task in managing the meaning of brands on a global scale (Andrews and Kim, 2007). Why do companies develop their own brands? According to Thanasuta, Patoomsuwan, Chaimahawong and Chiaravutthi (2009), the presence of brands were to identify and differentiate the products or services between the companies or organizations. It was further stated that brand name can lend a hand to the brand itself to pass on the information and communicate to the market (Hoyer and Brown, 1990). Also pointed by researchers, consumer have an unlikely similar perception towards different brand and also have a diverse perception of the products attribute and quality (Srinivasan and till, 2002). Indeed technology is no longer a matter of haves and have-nots but of basic services versus advanced ones but as technologies mature and product features become more similar, consumers are often unable or unwilling to differentiate between brands on rational attributes alone (Temporal and Lee, 2001). According to Forsythe (1995), brand name will be the vital indications or an extrinsic cue (Olson a nd Jacob, 1972) that will lead consumer to make their purchasing decision when they are trapped in a dilemma whereby they need to choose between two products. When the intrinsic indicator recognition of the product such as price is missing, consumers will tend to recognize it based on the brand name of the products or services (Ahmed and dAstous, 1996). Since consumers will have the knowledge on the brand which will cause consumers to create a perception on the brand, therefore they are able to measure the level of preferences whether or not the brand is pleasing their requirement (Urbany, Dickson, and Wilkie, 1989). To endeavour with this situation, some precise and adequate knowledge on the brand itself is a pre-requisite for consumers (Ratneshwar, Shocker and stewart, 1987). According to Baltas and Saridakis (2009), usually those who are more particular on the products quality will be more expose to the affection of brand name. Brand extension is a strategy that many companies follow with the aim of benefiting from the brand knowledge achieved in the current markets (Aaker and Keller, 1990).When a new product is marketed under a well-known brand name, failure rates and marketing costs are reduced (Martinez and Pina, 2010). Benefits of a great brand include a short-term gain on recognition to long-term competitive advantage on loyalty, which are ultimately translated into revenues and profits. 2.2.3 Price Price has been observed as an important element affecting the diffusion of new products and services, but pricing of a new product or service is particularly difficult (Munnukka, 2005). Nagle and Holden (2002) stated that price can play a role as a monetary value whereby the consumers to trade it with the services or products that were being sold by the sellers. Price will always be the key concern of consumers before making any purchasing decision (Smith and Carsky, 1996). Price equality is a psychological aspect which is persuasive towards consumers reactions to price (Campbell, 1999). Prices are perceived to be inequitable; consumers respond unenthusiastically by stay away from transactions, contacts with the provider or even engage in penalizing actions such as boycotts (Homburg, Hoyers and koschate, 2005). If a transaction or a price is perceive as unfair by consumers, they will engage in disciplinary actions (Antje and Mark, 2010). They will avoid the transaction and do not buy at all. Besides, there is a positive relationship between individuals perception of fairness and their level of expenditures, and that consumers tend to spend more money with specific providers if transactions are considered fair (Daskalopoulou and Petrou, 2006).Oh (2003) found that buyers comparison of actual price against their internally held reference price seems to affect their subsequent judgments about price, quality, and value. Kunal and Yoo (2010) shows that price has a positive impact on behavioral intentions. Price is one tangible cue from which consumers form expectations. As a result, the elements of marketing play a more important role in services since consumers are more sensitive to cues such as price (Bitner, 1990). Voss, Parasuraman and Grewal (1998) suggested that the link between price and satisfaction. When the consumers are satisfied with the price, they will purchase the product. Furthermore, should be noted that consumers buy high priced brands (typically luxury goods), driven by either social adjunctive attitudes that seek design, image, or social status or value-expression attitudes that seek product durability or quality (Wilcox, Kim and Sankar, 2009). Conspicuousness (willingness to spend a great amount of money to demonstrate their social status) also plays an important role on brand purchases (Kunal et al., 2010). Wilcox et al. (2009) find that high-priced brands are highly related to consumer conspicuousness. Consumers looking for quality, status, self expression, and image will gravitate toward high-priced brands to fulfill their goals, the achievement of which can be signaled through promotional messages of conspicuousness and exclusivity (Kunal et al., 2010). The level of price is found to positively affect behavioral intentions mainly because price establishes image of the brand in the eyes of the consumers (Aaker, 1991). In a consumers heuristics, a high (low) price connotes a high (low) quality and image. For a conceptual convenience, there are two types of products by price: high-priced brands and low priced brands (Kunal et al., 2010). High-priced brands are brands on the market whose image is seen as the key factor. Consumers of these brands often purchase them mainly for image and are willing to pay a premium price for their perceived high quality and status, which make them price-inelastic (Bolton, 1989). Low-priced brands tend to be purchased for utilitarian value, with the consumer relying on the perceived value for price. Consumers would typically look for low prices of these brands or substitutes to get the best value (Kunal et al., 2010). Consumers tend to interpret higher prices with higher quality, and low prices are percei ved as an indication of inferior quality (Rao and Monroe, 1988) According to Thaler (1985), there is more than couple of brand of mobile phone that consumer will find in todays market, this will most likely influence the consumers indicator on the pricing that being sold. Price is no longer an element that can be ignore for investigation whether or not it is an crucial factor that affects consumers behaviour in products and services. Given an example, a customer is choosing either a offline and a online book store for books, the distance of the store will be the first consideration and then followed by the time needed for delivery and lastly the price of it (Karlsson, Kuttainen, Pitt and Spyropoulou, 2005). As seen, price is a vital issue that the consumers need count into consideration. Recently, most of the consumers are pursuing a high quality services, though service is an important factor, yet the unwillingness of consumers to pay for obtaining a higher level of service by sacrificing an extra amount can still be seen (Tse, 2001). On the oth er hand, price might not be part of their considerations especially when dealing with web shopping, which the major concern falls on convenience, security and store offer (So, Wong and Sculli, 2005). In addition, there is a positive relationship between price and quality (Etgar and Malhotra, 1981). It explains that most of the consumers will regard high price goods and services equals to high quality. Thus, if the price level is at a peak but the quality or features are comply with the consumers expectation; they might perceive as fair and are more willing to pay a at a higher price to owns a better quality goods or services (Monroe, 2003). Due to the price of a product has a key authority on the consumers buying decision (Evanschitzky, Kenning and Vogel, 2004), it is normal to concentrate on it. As a precondition to valuing a price as low, the consumer must have at least a vague idea of the normal price. Only if that idea of normal price is present consumers can assess whether or not the offer is a bargain. The marketing-mix instrument of price is currently used excessively to attract consumers to a particular product or store. According to Kenning, Evanschitzky, Voegl and Ahlert (2007) nearly, every advertisement emphasizes price that over 90 percent of retailers in this market screen the prices of their competitors on a regular basis. Price knowledge is a psychological construct that relevant to retailer success, since it influences both a consumers buying decision and the sales margin. At the same time, it can help the retailer to exploit consumer willingness to pay. The price of a product is one of the most important marketing-mix tools which are currently used excessively to attract consumers to a certain product or store (Evanschitzky, Kenning and Vogel, 2004). Price knowledge is a psychological construct that is relevant to the success of the retailer, since it influences a consumers buying decision. At the same time, it can help the retailer to exploit the consumers willingness to pay by using information about price knowledge for the pricing of products.

Implications Career Counseling Based On Hollands Theory

Implications Career Counseling Based On Hollands Theory It is John Hollands view that career choice and career adjustment repre ­sent an extension of a persons personality. People express themselves, their interests and values, through their work choices and experience. In his theory, Holland assumes that peoples impressions and generalizations about work, which he refers to as stereotypes, are generally accurate. By studying and refining these stereotypes, Holland assigns both people and work environments to specific categories. Holland (1966, 1973, 1992, 1997) has published five books that explain his typological theory. Each book represents an update and a fur ­ther-refined version of earlier work in the development of his theory. The -August 1999 issue of The Journal of Vocational Behavior contains 12 arti ­cles which describe John Hollands 40-year contribution to career develop ­ment theory. Two psychological inventories were important in the devel ­opment of his theory: the Vocational Preference Inventory (Holland, i985b) and the Self-Directed Search (Holland, 1994). These instruments, in differ ­ent ways, measure self-perceived competencies and interests, which are an assessment of an individuals personality. Holland (Holland, 1997) recog ­nizes that his theory can account for only a portion of the variables that underlie career selection. He is clear in stating that, his theoretical model can be affected by age, gender, social class, intelligence, and education. with that understood, he go es on to specify how the individual and the en ­vironment interact with each other through the development of six types: Realistic Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. Both individuals and environments consist of a combination of types. The Six Types Realistic The Realistic Environment The Realistic (R) environment makes physi ­cal demands on the person. Such work settings have tools, machines, or animals that the individual manipulates. In such a setting, individuals are re ­quired to have technical competencies that will allow them to do such things as fix machines, repair electronic equipment, drive cars or trucks, herd animals, or deal with other physical aspects of their environment. The ability to work with things is more important than the ability to interact with other people. Construction sites, factories, and auto garages are ex ­amples of environments that provide machinery or other things for Realistic people to master. Some Realistic environments require a great deal of physical agility or strength, such as roofing, outdoor painting, and pipe fit ­ting. These environments may be hazardous and may produce more phys ­ical illness or accidents than other work environments. The Realistic Personality Type Realistic people are likely to enjoy using tools or machines in their hobbies or work. They tend to seek to develop competencies in such areas as plumbing, roofing, electrical and automotive repair, farming, and other technical disciplines. They are apt to like courses that are very practical and teach the use of mechanical or physical skills. Realistic people are likely to have little tolerance of abstract and theoreti ­cal description Often, they approach problems, whether mechanical or personal, in a practical or problem-solving manner. They are likely to value Investigative The Investigative Environment The Investigative (I) environment is one in which people search for solutions to problems through mathematical and scientific interests and competencies. In such a situation, people are encouraged to use complex and abstract thinking to solve problems cre ­atively. Examples of occupations that offer the opportunity to use analyti ­cal thinking skills are computer programmer, physician, mathematician, biologist, science teacher, veterinarian, and research and development man ­ager. In each of these environments, cautious and critical thinking is val ­ued. Individuals are likely to need to use logic and precise methodical thinking in order to find solutions to problems in these fields. These jobs require that people use their intellect to work independently to solve prob ­lems. They are not required or encouraged to use human relations skills to solve problems, nor are they likely to need to use thachines. For example, a computer programmer .uses logic to figure out solutions to problems (an Investigative environment), whereas the computer technician works with machinery and may assemble it or fix it (a Realistic environment). The Investigative Personality Type The Investigative person is likely to enjoy puzzles and challenges that require the use of intellect Such a per ­son is apt to enjoy learning and to feel confident about his or her ability to solve mathematical and scientific problems. Such people often enjoy read ­ing about science and discussing scientific issues. They seek to work in ­dependently to solve problems such as mathematical or scientific ques ­tions. They are likely to enjoy courses in math, physics, chemistry, biology, geology, and other physical or biological sciences. They are not likely to enjoy supervising other people or dealing directly with personal problems, but they may enjoy analyzing or searching for solutions to psychological problems. Artistic The Artistic Environment The Aitistic (A) environment is one that is free and open, encouraging creativity and personal expression. Such an envi ­ronment offers much freedom in developing products and answers. Exam ­ples of occupations in which people can use creative and unconventional ways to express themselves are musician, fine artist, and freelance writer. Such settings allow people to dress the way they wish, keep few.appoint ­ments, and structure their own time. These work environments encourage personal and emotional expression rather than logical expression. If tools are used, they are used to express oneself (for example, a clarinet or a paint ­brush) rather than as a means to complete a task (for example, an electric drill or a wrench). The Artistic Personality Type The Artistic person likes the opportunity to express himself or herself in a free and unsystematic way, creating mu ­sic, art, or writing. Such people may use instruments to do this, such as a violin, the voice, sculpting tools, or a word processor. They are likely to want to improve their ability in language, art, music, or writing. Original ­ity and creativity are particularly important in expression. To use a painted by-numbers kit would be deeply offensive to an Artistic type, who needs and desires the opportunity to express herself or himself in a free and open manner. A pure Artistic type would dislike technical writing and would prefer writing fiction or poetry. Social The Social Environment The Social (5) environment is one that encour ­ages people to be flexible and understanding of each other, where people can work with others through helping with personal or career problems, others, affecting others spiritually, and being socially responsible. The Social environment emphasizes human values such as being idealis ­tic, kind, friendly, and generous. These ideals most commonly exist in the education, social service, and mental health professions. Examples of these occupations are elementary school teacher, special education teacher, high school teacher, marriage counselor, counseling psychologist, speech thera ­pist, school superintendent, and psychiatrist. The Social Personality Type The Social person is interested in helping people through teaching, helping with personal or vocational problems, or providing personal services. Social people enjoy solving problems through discussion and teamwork rather than through delegation. Preferring to talk and resolve complex problems that may be ethical or idealistic in nature, they often choose to avoid working with machines. They seek out envi ­ronments where they can use verbal and social skills, such as in education, welfare, and mental health. Enterprising The Enterprising Environment The Enterprising (E) environment is one where people manage and persuade others in order to attain organizational or personal goals. These are situations where finance and economic issues are of prime importance and risks may be taken to achieve rewards. In such an environment,- people tend to be self-confident, sociable, and assertive. Its an environment where promotion and power are important, and per ­suasion and selling take place. Examples of Enterprising environments are sales work, buying, business management, restaurant management, poli ­tics, real estate, the stock market, insurance, and lobbying. All of these en ­vironments provide the opportunity for power, status, and wealth. The Enterprising Personality Type The acquisition of wealth is particu ­larly important for Enterprising people. They enjoy being with others and like to use verbal skills in order to sell, persuade, or lead. They tend to be assertive and popular, trying to take on leadership positions. They enjoy working with people but prefer to persuade and manage rather than to help. Conventional The Conventional Environment Organization and planning best describe the Conventional (C) environment. Much of the Conventional environ ­ment is an office environment, where one needs to keep records, file pa ­pers, copy materials, and organize reports. In addition to written material, the Conventional environment includes mathematical materials, such as bookkeeping and accounting records. Word processing, calculating, and copy machines are the type of equipment that is found in a Conventional environment. Competencies that are needed to work well in a Conven ­tional environment are clerical skills, an ability to organize, dependability, and an ability to follow directions. The Conventional Personality Type. The Conventional person is one who values money, being dependable, and the ability to follow rules and orders. These people prefer being in control of situations and not dealing with am ­biguous requests. They enjoy an office environment where their values of earning money and following rules, regulations, and guidelines can be met. Their strengths are their clerical and numerical ability, which they use to solve straightforward problems in their environment; Their relationships they tend to be directed toward accomplishing tasks and establish ­ approach to problems. Hollands Theory and Implications for Career Counseling John Hollands typological theory of persons and environments is regarded as the most influential in the field of career counseling (Brown, 2002), but this has not carried over to the field of higher education and academic advising (Smart, Feldman, Ethington, 2000). This conundrum led us to explore whether or not Hollands theory and research were relevant and could shed light on the behavior and organization of college faculty and students, which could ultimately improve the effectiveness of academic advising and career counseling. This article summarizes the results of our exploration. As colleges and universities have grown in size, scope, and organizational complexity, some students have found it difficult to find a home (Astin, 1984). While students may identify with a student organization, residence hall, or activity program, we believe that the academic department is the entity where students are likely to find important mentors, peers, involvement, direction, and inspiration. Academic departments have an inherent, varied mixture of characteristics that are created by the interests and behaviors of the faculty. If students can recognize, differentiate, and understand these diverse academic environments and the faculty who dominate them with respect to Hollands theoretical model, we believe they are more likely to find a place within the university that will increase their satisfaction, involvement, and persistence. Hollands person-environment interaction theory is especially important to scholars and practitioners in education and psychology. John Holland pioneered in assessing the environments of colleges and universities and their influence on students. His research has been central in the development of knowledge about nonacademic accomplishments. Hollands Theoretical Contributions Many inventories and career assessment tools use the typology to enable individuals to categorize their interests and personal characteristics in terms of combinations of the six types: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, or Conventional. Hollands typological theory (Holland, 1997) specifies a theoretical connection between personality and environment that makes it possible to use the same RIASEC classification system for both persons and fields of study or occupations. According to RIASEC theory, if a person and an environment have the same or similar codes, e.g., Investigative person in an Investigative environment, then the person will likely be satisfied and persist in that environment (Holland, 1997). This satisfaction will result from individuals being able to express their personality in an environment that is supportive and includes other persons who have the same or similar personality traits. It should be noted that neither people nor environments are exclusively one type but rather combinations of all six types. Their dominant type is an approximation of an ideal, modal type. The profile of the six types can be described in terms of the degree of differentiation (flat or uneven profile), consistency (level of similarity of interests or characteristics on the RIASEC hexagon for the first two letters of a three-letter Holland code), or identity (stability characteristics of the type). Each of these factors moderates predictions about the be havior related to the congruence level between a person and an environment. Persons and environments are typically described proportionally in terms of the most highly weighted three of the six Holland types, e.g., Lawyer, ESI; Accounting, CEI. The environments of college campuses, fields of study, work positions, and occupations can also be classified using the RIASEC system (G. Gottfredson Holland, 1996). Hollands early efforts with the National Merit Scholarship Corporation (NMSC) and the American College Testing Program enabled him to look at colleges and academic disciplines as environments. It is important to note that RIASEC theory had its roots in higher education and later focused on occupations. However, almost any social setting, e.g., a family-owned business, a classroom, or a work group, might be characterized in terms of a RIASEC environment. Every aspect of the theory can be applied to different kinds of environments. L. S. Gottfredson and Richards (1999) traced the history of Hollands efforts to classify educational and occupational environments. Holland initially studied the numbers of incumbents in a particular environment to classify occupations or colleges, but he later moved to study the characteristics of the environment independent of the persons in it. College catalogs and descriptions of academic disciplines were among the public records used to study institutional environments. Astin and Holland (1961) developed the Environmental Assessment Technique (EAT) while at the NMSC as a method for measuring college environments. Success in measuring faculty and the curriculum led Richards to explore differences in environments in Japanese (Richards, 1973) and British Commonwealth universities (Richards, 1974), U. S. law schools (Richards, 1987b), and Historically Black colleges (Richards, 1987a). For example, Richards found that Japanese universities placed less emphasis on the Artistic area and more on the Realistic area than U.S. universities. The most recent instruments for measuring environments are the Position Classification Inventory (PCI; G. Gottfredson Holland, 1991), a direct theory-based measure of occupational environments, and the Environmental Identity Scale (EIS; Holland, 1997). These instruments make it possible to study college faculty directly and thus advance the study of academic disciplines and their effects on college students. Those who study or provide services to college students need to understand the importance of Hollands RIASEC theory. For example, Day and Rounds (1998) reported that the RIASEC typology was used similarly by ethnically diverse groups of U.S. students to organize information about their interests and options. This means that varied cultural subgroups in the United States have a sufficiently common social and educational experience that RIASEC theory and related practical applications can be applied to almost everyone. More recently, Tracey and Darcy (2002) found that college students whose schema for organizing information about interests and occupations differed from Hollands RIASEC structure had less career certainty and more career indecision. This finding suggests that the RIASEC hexagon may have a normative benefit regarding the classification of occupations and fields of study. Definitions Although the terms academic advising and career counseling are familiar, it is important to define them as they are used in this article. Ender, Winston, and Miller (1984) defined developmental academic advising as a systematic process based on a close student-advisor relationship intended to aid students in achieving educational, career, and personal goals through the utilization of the full range of institutional and community resources. The distinctions between academic advising and career counseling are primarily a matter of scope and emphasis. Career counseling is a broader, more comprehensive term not limited to educational settings. However, both functions involve a process of individual or small group interventions to help persons use information to make educational and occupational decisions that are consistent with their personal goals, values, interests, and skills. We believe that a theory that informs career counseling, such as John Hollands RIASEC theory, can also infor m academic advising. Academic advising is more narrowly focused on college and university students and life/career decision making related to curricular and co-curricular activities. Creamer (2000) defined it as an educational activity that depends on valid explanations of complex student behaviors and institutional conditions to assist college students in making and executing educational and life plans. Traditional Application of Hollands Theory in College Settings The most prevalent strategy used by scholars is to define achievement in terms of the further acquisition, growth, or development of individuals initially prominent characteristics; that is, the competencies, values, interests, and attitudes associated with their dominant or primary personality type. For example, in our recent book (Smart, Feldman, Ethington, 2000), Academic Disciplines: Hollands Theory and the Study of College Students and Faculty, we tested the validity of the congruence assumption by examining the extent to which college students with dominant Investigative, Artistic, Social, and Enterprising personality types who entered congruent and incongruent academic environments differed on their development of Investigative, Artistic, Social, and Enterprising abilities and interests, respectively. Separate analyses were conducted for each of the four personality types. Our findings provided rather clear support for the congruence assumption, though the evidence was decide dly stronger for students with Artistic and Investigative personality types than for those with Enterprising or Social personality types. The logic that flows from the traditional definition of achievement illustrated in our and others findings is that students who enter congruent academic environments are more likely to be successful and to exhibit higher levels of achievement. Conversely, students who select academic environments that are incongruent with their personality types are likely to be less successful or to manifest lower levels of achievement than would be expected. Education is of course a nurturing profession, and our task, especially as teachers and counselors, is to assist students in their efforts to be successful throughout their college experiences. Given the conceptual appeal of Hollands theory and the accumulative evidence in support of the congruence assumptionthough often of modest magnitudecounselors and others have embraced the theory in their efforts to assist students in their efforts to successfully navigate the complexities and challenges of their college experiences. In so doing, the typical advice given students is to select academic majors (i.e., environments) that are congruent with their personality types. The strategy is simple and straightforward given the exemplary instruments developed by Holland and his colleagues to assess students personality and academic environment types: simply (1) assess students personality types using such established instruments as the SDS or the SCII, (2) look up academic majors that are simi lar to the students personality types using such reputable references as the Dictionary of Holland Occupational Codes (Gottfredson Holland, 1996) or The Educational Opportunities Finder (Rosen, Holmberg, Holland, 1994), and (3) advise students to select academic majors that are congruent with their personality types. This has been, in my opinion, the typical or traditional approach to research on the validity of the congruence assumption of Hollands theory and the use of his theory by counselors and others to assist students in the selection of academic majors in which they have the greatest likelihood of being successful and satisfied. All this is predicated on the selection of academic majors that are congruent with students initially prominent characteristics (i.e., their dominant personality types). The vision of a college education that evolves from this strategy is one characterized by assisting students to further develop their primary or dominant interests and abilities they had as freshmen. To venture from this tried and true path was assumed to lead to dissatisfaction, failure, and dropout. An Alternative Application of Hollands Theory in College Settings Something seemed amiss or disquieting to me as a result of such investigations of the congruence assumption in this manner. Our definition of achievement and the research strategies we employ are essentially silent as to what students who entered incongruent academic environments learned in those environments because our definition and strategy of learning or achievement focused only on students further development of their initially prominent characteristics; again, that is, the competencies, values, interests, and attitudes associated with their dominant personality type. This conceptual and analytical approach seems unfulfilling and problematic in college settings given that American higher education has historically sought to promote student growth and learning in a broad repertoire of competencies and interests. This repertoire is evident in the various taxonomies of college student outcomes developed by Bowen (1977), Lenning, Lee, Micek, and Service (1977), Ewell (1984), the Association of American Colleges (1985), and others. In addition, one need only examine the professed intent of higher education as manifested in their catalogues and in the growing use of performance indicators proposed by statewide coordinating agencies to assess the effectiveness of those institutions (Nedwick, 1996). Are students who enter incongruent academic environments really less successful and, as a consequence, their institutions less successful as well? My sense of discomfort led to two recent articles (Feldman, Smart, Ethington, 2001, in press) that are grounded in that portion of Hollands theory that is sociological in perspective and implicitly postulates a homogeneous pattern of reinforcement and reward by the respective academic environments irrespective of students levels of congruence with those environments. The approach is referred to as the socialization assumption or hypothesis of Hollands theory. Most important to remember here is that students success or achievement within the parameters of the socialization perspective is judged by the extent to which they grow in terms of the abilities and interests resistent and rewarded by their chosen environments (i.e., their academic majors) rather than enhancing their initially prominent characteristics. That is to say, for example, that while students who select academic majors that are incongruent with their personality types may remain the same or decline in their initially prominent characteristics, they may gain or grow in the abilities and interests reinforced and rewarded by their chosen academic major. This is a very different definition of students success or achievement within the parameters of Hollands theory than the typical or traditional approach discussed earlier (i.e., students ultimate satisfaction and success in college is dependent on their choice of an academic environment that is congruent with their personality type). Socialization Effects of Disciplines The research of Smart et al. (2000) was based on two ideas. First, faculty create academic environments inclined to require, reinforce, and reward the distinctive patterns of abilities and interests of students in a manner consistent with Hollands theory (p. 96). Second, students are not passive participants in the search for academic majors and careers; rather, they actively search for and select academic environments that encourage them to develop further their characteristic interests and abilities and to enter (and be successful in) their chosen career fields (p. 52). In the following paragraphs, we summarize findings relevant to these two ideas. Smart et al. (2000) sought to discover whether or not changes in students over four years were the result of their experiences in their major fields of study (academic discipline). They reasoned that faculty chose to be in academic environments, e.g., academic departments, because of their preferences and values regarding the goals of undergraduate education and their preferred ways of socializing students. Smart et al. held that faculty are the primary representatives of academic environments and the primary contributors to behavior patterns of students who choose those environments as majors. Students and Major Change Thus far, we have concentrated our analysis on the impact of four disciplines in socializing students toward the development of interests and skills predicted by Hollands (1997) typological theory. But what about the personal choices made by students in selecting a discipline? In order to study this phenomenon, Smart et al. (2000) classified students as primary or secondary recruits. Primary recruits were defined as students initially selecting a discipline and staying in that field over four years. Secondary recruits were those in a different major in the fourth year. When environments (percentage of seniors in each of the four areas) rather than entering students were examined, Smart et al. (2000) found that from 1/3 to 1/2 of the four environments were composed of primary recruits, and about half of the sample were secondary recruits, e.g., the seniors who had changed their majors. This means that almost half the seniors ended up in a discipline that was different from their initial choice. This was most notable in the Artistic environment where 2/3 of the students were secondary recruits from one of the other areas and did not intend to major in the Artistic area in their freshman year. About 1/3 of the students migrating into the Social area came from Investigative, Enterprising, or undecided areas. Students moving into the Investigative area were most likely to come from the Enterprising area, and vice versa. These data reveal the fluid nature of students major selections and the heterogeneous nature of the four environments with respect to t he students initial major preferences. Socialization in Relation to Student Characteristics The specific findings of Smart et al. (2000) regarding the impact of socialization for the four discipline environments with respect to student personality characteristics are summarized below. The variability in the socialization styles and the effects of the environments, as well as how socialization effected the students congruence with the environments are described. It will be recalled that a high level match between the person and the environment, e.g., Investigative person in Investigative major, indicates high congruence. Faculty in Investigative environments place primary attention on developing analytical, mathematical, and scientific competencies, with little attention given to character and career development. They rely more than other faculty on formal and structured teaching-learning, they are subject-matter centered, and they have specific course requirements. They focus on examinations and grades. This environment has the highest percentage of primary recruits. All students in Investigative environments increased their abilities and interests in this area, and this was even stronger if they were Investigative students at entry (primary recruits). Investigative students in disciplines outside of the Investigative environment did not increase their abilities and skills in the Investigative area. Artistic environments focus on aesthetics and an emphasis on emotions, sensations, and the mind. The curriculum stresses learning about literature and the arts, as well as becoming a creative thinker. Faculty also emphasize character development, along with student freedom and independence in learning. Varied instructional strategies are used. About two-thirds of students in the Artistic environment did not anticipate majoring in the Artistic environment when they entered college. Artistic type students were not more likely to initially select a major in this environment. On the other hand, Artistic students majoring in Artistic environments did have stronger interests and abilities in this area. Students majoring in Artistic environments did show large increases in Artistic abilities and interests, and this was true for both primary and secondary recruits. Artistic personalities not majoring in Artistic environments did not increase their self-rated interests and abilities over four years. Social environments have a strong community orientation characterized by friendliness and warmth. Like the Artistic environment, faculty place value on developing a historical perspective of the field and an emphasis on student values and character development. Unlike the Artistic environment, faculty also place value on humanitarian, teaching, and interpersonal competencies. Colleagueship and student independence and freedom are supported, and informal small group teaching is employed. The socialization effect of the environment was the smallest of the four areas studied and the effects were muddled by gender. Small increases were recorded for Social students in Social environments, but these were not much different from those for Social students in other environments. Social disciplines seem to have the least impact and Social students reported the least gains in related interests and abilities. Stated another way, the Social environments appear to be the most accepting and least d emanding of the four environments studied by Smart et al. (2000). The Enterprising environment has a strong orientation to career preparation and status acquisition. Faculty focus on leadership development, the acquisition and use of power to attain career goals, and striving for common indicators of org